Research | Policing blog

Passionately curious: Bridging Theory and Practice in Police Education

Paul Williamson | 17 September 202617 September 2026

How can police education successfully connect academic theory with the realities of operational practice?

In this latest UWE Bristol Policing blog, our colleague Tracey Payne reflects on the research and personal learning behind her MA Education dissertation. Drawing on the experiences of PCDA students and academic staff, Tracey explores where theory and practice complement one another, where tensions remain, and how teaching approaches can help student officers recognise the operational value of academic learning.

Alongside the research findings and recommendations, Tracey offers an honest account of completing a substantial research project while balancing professional responsibilities. Her reflections highlight the importance of curiosity, protected study time, supportive supervision and lifelong learning, not only for student officers, but also for those who teach and support them.

Aligning Theory and Practice: Reflections on My MA Research Journey

“I have no special talents. I am only passionately curious.”

Albert Einstein

When I came across this quote, it made me smile because it sums up my approach to this research journey. Curiosity about the experiences of PCDA students and the relationship between theory and practice motivated me throughout the project and, if anything, fuelled an even greater enthusiasm for research and lifelong learning.

Completing my MA Education dissertation, Aligning Theory and Practice: Exploring Dissonance and Congruence on the Police Constable Degree Apprenticeship (PCDA), has been one of the most challenging and rewarding experiences of my professional academic career. As both a former police officer and current academic, the research provided an opportunity to explore an issue that I have observed throughout my time in policing education: the relationship between academic theory and operational policing practice.

What Did the Research Find?

The study explored the experiences of a small number of students and academic staff on the PCDA programme, examining where theory and practice align well and where tensions emerge. Through surveys, interviews and a review of the literature, the research found that participants recognised the value of criminological theory, particularly theories such as Social Learning Theory and Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), in helping officers better understand behaviour, vulnerability and decision-making. However, students sometimes struggled to see the direct relevance of certain academic concepts to their day-to-day operational duties. Although participants acknowledged that criminological theory could enhance critical thinking, ethical reasoning and understanding of behaviour, a recurring source of dissonance arose when theoretical frameworks appeared disconnected from operational realities. Academics reported that students were more likely to engage with theory when it was explicitly contextualised through real-life policing examples, reflective practice and scenario-based learning.

Analysis identified six themes that shaped participants’ experiences:

Theory to Practice Alignment – difficulties in translating theory into operational practice.
Curriculum Complexity and Misalignment – perceptions of academic overload.
Cohort Dynamics and Engagement Patterns – the influence of peer groups and policing culture.
Lecturer Strategies and Pedagogical Adaptations – approaches that successfully bridge theory and practice.
Impact on Motivation and Identity Formation – the influence of learning on professional identity and confidence.
Challenges and Cultural Resistance – ongoing resistance to degree-level policing education.

Importantly, the research also highlighted significant examples of existing good practice. Scenario-based learning, practitioner-led teaching, reflective practice and strong collaboration between the university and police service were all identified as effective ways of helping students make sense of theoretical concepts and apply them within operational settings.

Key Recommendations

While the findings demonstrated many strengths within the programme, several recommendations were identified to further strengthen theory and practice integration.

These included:

Embedding more structured reflective practice throughout the curriculum.
Increasing the use of real-world case studies and practitioner input.
Exploring immersive technologies such as virtual and augmented reality.
Involving alumni more regularly as mentors, guest speakers and role models.
Creating safe spaces for discussion around challenging topics.
Encouraging greater student participation in curriculum development.
Developing curriculum heat maps to identify areas of perceived misalignment between theory and practice.
Exploring the use of Cognitive Dissonance Theory exercises to support learning and professional development.

At the heart of the recommendations is a simple message: theory and practice should not be considered competing concepts. Instead, when effectively aligned, they can strengthen professional competence, critical thinking and evidence-based policing.

Reflecting on the Research Journey

Schön (1983) describes reflection as a key component of professional practice, enabling practitioners to learn from their experiences and improve future performance. Conducting my own research increased my understanding of the challenges experienced by students balancing work and study, allowing me to become a more reflective and empathetic educator.

One of the most important lessons I learned was understanding how I work best. As Mondays are my non-working day, I quickly realised that meaningful progress was achieved when I consolidated my research into dedicated blocks of time. It often takes me a while to fully immerse myself in a task, therefore trying to complete small pieces of work around a busy working week was not particularly effective.

Instead, I found that setting aside specific periods of uninterrupted time allowed me to become fully focused on the research. This meant that many weekends and non-working days became dedicated research days. While this required personal commitment and sacrifice, it also provided clarity and structure. During my working week I was able to focus entirely on supporting students, confident that dedicated time for my research had already been planned.

Towards the latter stages of the project, I was fortunate to utilise scholarly leave. This proved invaluable. Having protected time away from the day-to-day demands of my role enabled me to immerse myself completely in the project without feeling conflicted between competing responsibilities. The ability to focus solely on the research significantly increased my productivity and allowed me to complete several key stages of the dissertation.

The Value of Support

Although research can often feel like a solitary endeavour, I was fortunate to benefit from excellent support throughout the process.

My personal tutor provided an invaluable sense check at key stages of the project. Their encouragement, guidance and constructive challenge helped me maintain confidence during moments of uncertainty and ensured that I remained focused on the overall research objectives.

I also set myself a personal target of completing the dissertation two weeks before the submission deadline. Previous experience had taught me that the final checks associated with a substantial piece of work, reviewing references, citations, formatting, indexing and overall accuracy, can take far longer than expected, and I wanted to avoid the stress of completing these tasks against a looming deadline. Additionally, setting an earlier completion date helped create a clear endpoint and reduced the temptation to make continual amendments that added little value to the final submission. In hindsight, this proved to be the right decision.

By the end of the process, I can honestly admit that I had reached a point where I felt I had given everything I could to the project.

Looking Back and Looking Forward

“We do not learn from experience… we learn from reflecting on experience.”
John Dewey (1933)

A few months after submission, my perspective has changed again. Having had time away from formal study, I now find myself increasingly drawn back towards research and learning. What initially felt like relief at finishing has gradually become a renewed curiosity and enthusiasm for further academic enquiry.

Perhaps the greatest personal outcome from this experience has been the increased empathy I now have for my students. Conducting the research myself reminded me of the challenges associated with balancing professional responsibilities alongside academic study. It has made me more current, more understanding and, hopefully, better equipped to offer meaningful advice and support to those navigating similar challenges.

Finally, completing this journey alongside our PCDA students made the achievement even more special. To graduate at the same time as many of the student officers whose educational journeys I have supported throughout their degree felt particularly fitting. It served as a reminder that learning never truly stops, regardless of career stage or experience.

The dissertation may be complete, but the questions it raised and the enthusiasm it reignited continue to shape my thinking today. Research has not only enhanced my understanding of policing education; it has also reminded me why lifelong learning remains such a rewarding journey.

About the Author

Tracey Payne is a Senior Lecturer and Programme Leader for Year 3 of the Police Constable Degree Apprenticeship (PCDA) at UWE Bristol. After retiring from Avon and Somerset Police in January 2019 following 30 years of operational service, Tracey joined UWE a week later and played a key role in the design and delivery of the PCDA programme. Seven years on, Tracey remains committed to supporting student officers, driven by curiosity, continuous learning, and a passion for bridging theory and practice in police education.

References

Calaprice, A. (2011) The Ultimate Quotable Einstein. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. Boston: D.C. Heath.

Schön, D.A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books.

Editorial team

Paul Williamson (Editor-in-Chief); Claudia McCready (Senior Lecturer); Claire Bowers (Senior Lecturer); Eve Smietanko (Joint Programme Leader & Senior Lecturer) and Ian Lowe (Senior Lecturer).

Supporting the Wellbeing of Investigators week of action 2025

Paul Williamson | 13 November 2025

A consistent finding in policing research is that investigators report some of the lowest levels of wellbeing, highest levels of emotional fatigue, and elevated risks of vicarious trauma compared with other policing roles (Police Federation, 2020).

This week’s Wellbeing of Investigators Week of Action provides both a moment for reflection and an opportunity to examine the organisational, cultural and emotional pressures experienced by investigators across policing. Coordinated by the National Police Chief’s Council (NPCC) Recruitment, Retention and Wellbeing of Investigators Portfolio, the week has brought together leaders, investigators and academics to explore challenges that have long been acknowledged, yet persistently under-addressed.

Supported by the updated Investigator Wellbeing Toolkit, the work of the Investigator Wellbeing Group is vital to build on decades of awareness and ensure that improvements are made at the pace needed.

Understanding the Demands and the Costs

As a career investigator, I have experienced the full spectrum of investigative pressures from volume and priority crime up to PIP3 Senior Investigating Officer (SIO) and PIP4 Strategic Investigator. Much of my career centred on major and complex investigations, including leading homicide and national high-profile investigations into child sexual exploitation and organised crime. These were testing environments but also hugely rewarding.

These roles shaped me professionally, but they also came with significant personal impact. Like many investigators, I missed family birthdays, school events and milestones. Long deployments away from home were not uncommon. Such sacrifices that come with ‘the job’, are rarely acknowledged, yet they intensify emotional burdens that investigators accumulate over time.

Academic research consistently shows the cumulative effect of such strain. Investigators experience secondary traumatic stress, particularly when investigating rape, child sexual exploitation and abuse (Foley et al., 2024). Emotional labour and chronic exposure to interviewing victims and viewing distressing material, all reduce psychological energy and increase vulnerability to burnout. These pressures are compounded by a policing culture that historically rewards endurance and “getting on with it” (Loftus and Holdaway, 2013), even when doing so jeopardises wellbeing, impairs judgement and decision-making (Cook and Tattersall, 2014).

The Work That Never Switches Off

My personal experience was that one of the most persistent challenges is the inability to mentally switch-off. Even after leaving work, investigative threads replay in the mind as you go over key evidence and unanswered questions searching for that vital break-through. On long-running harder to solve cases, I would routinely keep a notepad by my bed, as I would wake up with flashes of inspiration that needed to be captured before I could nod back off to sleep.

While dedication is essential, research by McLean, Meakins and White (2022) shows that cognitive overload and fatigue impair decision-making, reduce investigative accuracy and increase risk-taking. Research also cautions on the structure of investigative work, long unsociable hours, high-risk and often under-resourced teams, (James et al., 2025) which can leave investigators feeling like rest is a luxury rather than a necessity.

Wellbeing literature emphasises the critical role of recovery in sustaining performance in high-risk roles (Hope, 2016). Each investigator must find what works for themselves, but such practices are only fully effective when embedded within supportive organisational cultures. For me, watching my children’s sporting achievements, running and (who would have thought) gardening became rare moments of mental relief, providing space to decompress and recalibrate.

Victims, Moral Injury and Emotional Weight

Investigators carry a profound responsibility towards victims and their families. In many cases, they are the voice and the person they rely on to reveal the truth and achieve justice. The emotional weight of supporting victims and families whilst remaining professional and objective can be considerable, especially on long-running hard to solve cases. Blumberg et al. (2020, p.1) argue that investigators can then also experience psychological distress resulting from “the cost of caring” by feeling unable to reduce the suffering experienced by others. Investigators carry their stories with them long after the investigation concludes and this is a major reason that wellbeing support is so vital.

Organisational pressures

Organisational demands such as tight time frames, high case volumes and pressure to ‘wrap up’ all influence investigative decision-making ((McLean, Meakins and White, 2022). This can push investigators into a more cursory investigative mindset where they are prevented from upholding their own professional values (Blumberg et al., 2020). This is central to why investigator wellbeing requires more than simply individual resilience.

Team Culture and Leadership

No SIO can shoulder the responsibility of an investigation alone. Evidence shows that effective leadership and psychological safety (meaning the confidence to raise concerns, admit uncertainty and seek support), significantly enhance wellbeing and team performance (Phythian et al., 2023). In practice, however, as James, Cox and Carr (2025, p.1) have found, investigative teams still operate within a culture in which “high workloads, stress, and skills shortages” impact on their capacity and capability.

The work of the National SIO Wellbeing Group also reflects a growing recognition that the unique pressures faced by senior investigators require dedicated support. The group acts as a peer forum for confidential discussion, challenge and shared learning, with similarities to the NCA’s National SIO Adviser mentorship role. While a positive step, the groups very existence also highlights the continued gaps in organisational design, investment and support.

Preparing the Next Generation of Investigators

At UWE Bristol, the Degree Holder Entry Programme (DHEP) in partnership with Avon and Somerset Police plays a crucial role in preparing future detectives for both the operational and human challenges of investigative work.

The programme combines academic learning with professional practice, introducing student officers to concepts such as reflective practice, emotional resilience, trauma exposure, and the psychology of decision-making. It also focuses heavily on trauma-informed approaches, inclusive investigatory practice and acting in a procedurally just way – both in their engagement with members of the local community, as well as interactions with their peers.

Taught by a team of academics from a range of professional backgrounds, it encourages critical engagement with the realities of policing, the pressures that contribute to poor wellbeing as well as tools for self-management and ownership.

Moving forwards

The “Wellbeing of Investigators Week of Action” represents significant progress under the leadership of ACC Martin Brunning, who I first met as an SIO colleague on a cross-border serial killer investigation. I have no doubt that having walked the path, Martin will do his upmost to deliver sustainable change and embed wellbeing as a core component of investigative practice. Many of the challenges for investigators wellbeing are structural rather than individual, and I wish him and the working group all the very best.

Reflecting on my own investigative career, I am proud of the investigators and teams I worked alongside and the justice we collectively achieved. For me though, it was not until I walked out of the office for the last time, and stopped investigating, that I came to realise how much I had internalised and normalised the stresses of the job.

My message to those still investigating is “keep persevering “as it is a fantastic career but remember that resilience is not about running on empty. It is about knowing when to stop, recharge and go again!

References

Blumberg, D. M., Papazoglou, K., and Schlosser, M. D. (2020). Organizational Solutions to the Moral Risks of Policing. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health [online]. 17(20. [Accessed 10 November 2025].

Cook and Tattersall (2014). Blackstone’s Senior Investigating Officers’ Handbook. 3rd Ed. Oxford University Press.

Hope, L. (2016). Evaluating the effects of stress and fatigue on police officer response and recall: A challenge for research, training, practice and policy. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(3), pp. 239–245.

James, A., Cox, C., and Carr, R. (2025). Caseloads, culture, and capacity: rethinking investigative policing [online]. Policing & Society, pp. 1–22 [Accessed 12 November 2025].

James, A., Rogers, C., Turner, J. and Silverstone, D. (2025). Helping the police with their inquiries: improving investigator resilience and capacity in England and Wales [online]. Available from: https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/18899/1/Helping%20the%20police%20with%20their%20enquiries.pdf [Accessed 12 November 2025].

Loftus, B. and Holdaway, S. (2013) Police culture in a changing world. Criminology & criminal justice [online]. 13 (1) p.119–120. [Accessed 10 November 2025].

McLean, F., Meakins, A. and White, E. (2022). College of Policing. Conducting effective investigations: Rapid evidence assessment [online]. Available from: https://assets.college.police.uk/s3fs-public/2022-07/Conducting-effective-investigations-rapid-evidence-assessment.pdf [Accessed 11 November 2025].

National Police Chiefs Council. 2025. Wellbeing of investigators toolkit. Available from: [Accessed 6 November 2025].

Police Federation (2020). Detectives in Crisis: Findings from the Police Federation Demand, Capacity and Welfare Survey 2020. Available from: https://www.polfed.org/media/16610/detectives-in-crisis.pdf [Accessed 11 November 2025].

Phythian, R., Birdsall, N., Kirby, S., Cooper, E., Posner, Z., & Boulton, L. (2023). Organisational and individual perspectives of police wellbeing in England and Wales. Police Journal (Chichester), 96(1), pp. 128–152.

Editorial Team

Paul Williamson (Editor-in-Chief); Claudia McCready (Lecturer); Claire Bowers (Senior Lecturer); Eve Smietanko (Joint Programme Leader & Senior Lecturer) and Ian Lowe (Senior Lecturer).

If you would like to be a guest blogger, please contact Police.Blog@uwe.ac.uk

The Fraying Thin Blue Line

Paul Williamson | 18 September 202518 September 2025

Police officers are routinely exposed to trauma and pressure, but as this latest UWE Policing blog by Dr Paul Gavin and Dr Cody Porter makes clear, it is the organisational stressors that are doing the deepest harm. We are grateful for their new research insights that highlight a workforce struggling with burnout, secondary trauma and continued stigma around seeking help. Their findings make for uncomfortable reading, and emphasise that wellbeing cannot be a tick box exercise and must be led with genuine focus from the top. Over to Paul and Cody…

The Fraying Thin Blue Line: The Mental Health Struggles of Police Officers in the UK and Ireland

Police officers encounter a wide range of occupational stressors on a daily basis, and this is having a damaging effect on their mental health. In recent years, an increasing number of police officers have been signed off work due to declining mental health. Research by Dr Paul Gavin and Dr Cody Porter at UWE Bristol has examined the mental health of police officers throughout the UK and in Ireland. This blog piece shares some of their findings. The message is clear: police officers on both sides of the Irish Sea are struggling with their mental health, and while the causes are familiar, the solutions require cultural and structural change within policing.

To put it bluntly, being a police officer is a stressful job. It means that you are at risk of encountering violence, trauma, and high-pressure situations on an almost daily basis. These are what we refer to as operational stressors – they relate to the day-to-day nature of policing, and they can have a serious impact on the mental health of police officers. In fact, it is estimated that a police officer will encounter between 400 to 600 traumatic incidents during an average career, compared with the three to four traumatic events typically thought to be experienced by the public. However, many police officers view these operational stressors as part of the job, and therefore, they can often cope with and manage the stress that comes with them. Organisational stressors are another matter. These are often related to the administrative nature of police work and include excessive workload, poor pay and conditions, a culture of bullying and sexism, a poor working environment and a lack of a work / life balance. These organisational stressors are often much more damaging to the mental health of police officers than the operational stressors they experience.

Findings from this research

54 police officers from the UK (but the vast majority were from England and Wales) and 98 police officers from the Republic of Ireland took part in the survey took part in an online survey to investigate police perceptions of mental health.

Findings from the UK

Participants revealed that police officers were struggling under the weight and pressures of their job. Exposure to violence and trauma were listed throughout the responses, with many participants writing that they were suffering from some form of PTSD. They described being ‘devoid of emotion’ and being ‘desensitized to most things that most people would find shocking’. Secondary trauma was described as having an impact on mental health, with one participant writing that they had to ‘relive other victims’ pain and hearing accounts given by victims of the most horrific crimes in great detail every day’.

Participants were also impacted by a lack of support and appreciation from senior managers, a poor work/life balance, an ever-increasing workload and a culture of bullying. One participant wrote that being a police officer was a job where ‘you are just expected to get on with it and are expected to know everything even if it’s not something you have dealt with before’. Several referred to feeling burned out, with one writing ‘I am running completely on empty’. Those who stood up to bullying and harassment in the workplace were subsequently isolated and unsupported by their managers.

Although support is available to police officers through Employee Assistance Programmes, many viewed these as nothing more than a ‘box-ticking exercise’. There is also a substantial stigma associated with seeking help for one’s mental health, One participant wrote that ‘there is a level of stigma attached to asking for help within the police which may stop people getting the help they need’. For those who do seek help, this may negatively impact their relationships with colleagues and on their career. On this issue one participant wrote that‘Showing any signs of weakness has an effect on how your team view you. They may not want to be crewed with you if you’re honest about the way you feel as they don’t see you as competent’.

Findings from the Republic of Ireland

Members of An Garda Siochana (the Irish police force) reported a similar experience in terms of exposure to violence and traumatic events, with participants describing the psychological impact of such exposure as both ‘significant’ and ‘huge’.. There was also a very human cost to such traumatic exposure, and this was deeply felt by participants with one writing that ‘I can still hear the screams of that mother. I see her face in my dreams’.

Participants, regardless of their age, gender, rank, or length of service, claimed that bullying was rife within the organisation and that management provided very little support in such cases. There was also a perceived lack of managerial support when it came to excessive workload. Participants explained how these issues resulted in their feeling stressed, that work was becoming overwhelming and that they were now drowning in paperwork. Overall, this has had a negative impact on police morale, with one writing that ‘Morale is as low as it can get. Staff are leaving in their droves. They don’t feel valued. They are overworked. There are not enough officers. Everyone is exhausted’.

Irish police officers reported barriers to seeking support, including stigma within the organisation and the potentially negative impact that it could have on their career. For instance, one participant wrote that mental health was ‘a taboo subject due to the nature of the job, a sense of ‘that’s what you signed up for so get on with it’ due to years of this being the norm’, Another wrote that the career impact of seeking support for ones mental health ranged ‘being held back in your career’ to your career coming to ‘a dead end’.

What needs to change?

The findings of this research shows that police officers are working under immense pressure and that this is having a negative impact on their mental health. Operational stressors are an unavoidable part of the policing role, and exposure to violence and trauma in policing are parts of the job that will not change. Organisational stressors, such as poor managerial support, excessive workloads, and toxic workplace cultures, are what are proving most damaging. The impacts of these stressors are clear and are damaging to policing: low morale, burnout, and a workforce reluctant to seek help for fear of stigma or career repercussions.

If policing is to remain effective and sustainable, this culture must change. Support must be more than a box-ticking exercise. It needs to be embedded in everyday practice, led from the top, and genuinely focused on officer wellbeing. That means having open conversations about mental health, robust protections against workplace bullying, and systems that encourage – not punish – help-seeking. The work is challenging and will require both cultural and structural change within policing. Without such change, the cost will continue to be borne not only by the officers themselves, but also by the communities they serve.

Editorial Team

The team are grateful to Dr Gavin and Dr Porter for bringing these voices to the fore, and for prompting further debate that the profession urgently needs to have.

Paul Williamson (Editor-in-Chief); Claudia McCready (Lecturer); Claire Bowers (Senior Lecturer); Eve Smietanko (Joint Programme Leader & Senior Lecturer) and Ian Lowe (Senior Lecturer).

If you would like to be a guest blogger, please contact Police.Blog@uwe.ac.uk

‘X: free speech vs. extreme narratives – sexism and misogyny’

Paul Williamson | 18 April 202425 April 2024

Author: Claire Bowers UWE Bristol

In February 2024, six members of the UWE Bristol Team (Claire Bowers, Jack James, Katie Etherton, Dr Jennifer Holmes, Claudia McCready and Eve Smietanko) presented at the third annual colloquium of the European Society of Criminology Working Group on radicalisation, extremism, and terrorism at the University of Portsmouth. This week’s blog, authored by Claire and with input from all of the research team, takes a look at the important issues that this research seeks to explore.

Introduction

Issues of sexism and misogyny continue to be hugely topical within Policing. From acknowledged concerns of institutional misogyny in the Met, chronicled within the Casey report (2021), to the ongoing Angiolini Inquiry investigating how serving officers David Carrick and Wayne Couzens were able to commit such horrific crimes. This is reinforced by the recent College of Policing 2023 Action plan entitled ‘Tackling sexism and misogyny in policing’ whose review of published and unpublished evidence identified more than 200 ways in which sexism and misogyny are present in a policing context. Misogyny is a form of violence against women (Arsawati and Bunga, 2021) and gender-based violence is on the increase, partly due to the virtual space which did not previously exist (Singh and Singh, 2021; Yar and Steinmetz, 2024). As a group of six academics who teach on the policing programme, we are interested in the role that social media, particularly the platform ‘X’ formally known as Twitter, may play in fuelling this crisis.

Our research proposal, presented at the 2024 Annual Terrorism and Extremism Colloquium, was triggered by recent events in the media, and particularly the influence of Elon Musk’s acquisition of Twitter/X in October 2022. At a cost of $44 billion on 28^th October 2022, Musk announced to all “the bird is freed.” A self-declared ‘free speech absolutist’, Elon permitted the return of prominent public figures, such Donald Trump, Tommy Robinson, and Andrew Tate back to the site (Griffin, 2022).

Background to our research

The online sphere (Papacharissi, 2022) can be a place of community and acceptance, but it has also become a place where extreme views can thrive and flourish. Since the dawn of social media there has been concern around its policing of hate speech. In 2018, 23% of women polled across eight countries stated that they had experienced harassment or abuse online (Amnesty International, 2018). Of those women, 47% stated the abuse or harassment was sexist or misogynistic. We expect that this statistic is likely to have increased, something we hope to explore in our research.

Since social media has become mainstream, there has been increasing concern around online safety and what role companies such as Twitter should play. In the latter half of the 2010s, more safety advice and tools were added such as the ‘harmful reply’ nudge. Since the transition from Twitter to X there has been concern that the safety features are no longer as effective, with much of the team responsible for this facility being laid off when Musk took over (Brewster, 2024).

Studies have been carried out into the effect that Musk has had on X since his takeover. For example, the Institute for Strategic Dialogue completed research for BBC Panorama in 2023. This found that in the days after Musk’s takeover there was an increase in new accounts created, that followed known misogynistic and abusive channels. Interestingly misogynistic views were not dominant but often included in more clear ideologies around anti-liberalism and pro-free speech. The research showed that there is a potential link between Musk’s own ‘free speech absolutist’ stance and a more permissive environment where hate speech can flourish. Other forms of hate speech have increased on the platform, for example antisemitism has doubled since Musk took over X (Miller et al, 2023). Research also suggests that people hold positive views of figures such as Andrew Tate, a self-proclaimed misogynist (Radford, 2023), especially from younger populations. Polling data released by Skiner and Gottfried on behalf of IPSOS (2024) shows that young UK males are far more supportive of Tate than females and older males and surveys from 2022 illustrate that 56% of young male fathers also hold positive views of him (Internet Matters, 2023).

About our research

64% of women see sexism as a major problem in the UK (Young Women’s Trust, 2019) and research from Stop Hate (2023) show extensive increases (as high as 322%) in incident reports relating to gender. This persistent trend of research and high-profile cases have led to a momentum for change (Chattier, 2020) telling us that women have had enough.

There has been little research into misogynistic hate speech on the app since Musk’s takeover, and all of these appear to focus on the quantitative rise rather than the experience of its users. In our research we want to adopt a mixed methods approach, using both qualitative and quantitative methods to better understand the experiences of those using the platform.

What do we want to find out?

We want to explore whether there is a link between Musk’s ‘free speech absolutist’ stance and the perceived rise in hate speech.
We want to explore firsthand experiences of users potentially exposed to this harmful narrative and the impact it has on them and society.
We want to establish the current rates of misogynistic hate crime and incidences and how they are being recorded.

We look to achieve this through:

Examining content from X after Musk’s acquisition in October 2022.
Surveying X users on their experiences.
Information requests from all Police forces in England and Wales about their recording of such crimes and incidences.

Why is this research important?

Violence against women and girls.

Online misogynistic narratives drive gender-based Hate Crimes which disproportionately affect women and girls, used as a form of intimidation and suppression reflected in worldwide trends of prevalence of violence against women. Obtaining a true picture of experiences of users on platforms such as X helps us to better understand the problem to inform policy moving forward.

Impact on mental health

The research shows women’s mental health is being negatively impacted, with experiences of sexism correlating with reduced wellbeing and life satisfaction. Research from the Young Women’s Trust shows that young women are 5 times more likely to have clinical depression. Our research will consider whether these impacts are the same for users on X.

Anti-feminist communities and radicalisation

The online ‘manosphere’ (Van Valkenburgh, 2021) environment is associated with ‘cyber hate’ and online harassment. It is a space where radicalisation can take place and misogynistic views can be validated and confirmed. It is a breeding ground for confirmation bias. Our research will consider whether there is evidence of this on X.

Polemical gender discourse

Unnecessarily, this topic can generate an ‘us and them’ paradigm which is divisive and compounds the problem. This perpetuates and justifies the need for some, further misogynistic challenge, particularly online. Taking the stance that challenging misogyny is ‘women taking on men’ is disproportionate and a narrative exploited by misogynists. Our research will examine X to see if there is evidence of this type of discourse.

Limiting women’s voices and visibility online with additional ‘emotional labour’

Incidences of misogyny experienced through online engagements consciously serve to limit women’s online voices and visibility (Aliche, 2023). To deal with this, women adopt a two-tier strategy: “moral persuasion” or “going hard” to deal with online abuse. With the emphasis being on women to change and regulate their behaviour, this approach constitutes serious ‘emotional labour’ and despite its utility, remains unsustainable in fighting online misogyny. We will consider whether this is the experience of users on X.

We do not fully understand the true extent of the issue.

Pre-existing research shows that online sexually aggressive behaviours tend to be downplayed and are often not reported. Cyber-sexual violence is deemed as less serious (Vizcaíno-Cuenca, Romero-Sánchez, and Carretero-Dios, 2024). We hope that this research will shine a light on and help us to better understand the extent of incidences that go unreported as well as the impact of these experiences.

Concluding Thoughts

Elon Musk is known for saying “the point of freedom of speech is allowing those whose views you disagree with to express those views,” This is true, safeguarding freedom of speech is essential, but this must be balanced against enabling hatred against others or putting them in danger. It is simply not acceptable to claim freedom of speech protection when it is perpetrating, justifying, and breeding harm. The question is, where do we draw the line?

Investigating sexist and misogynistic narratives on high profile platforms such as X and the impact on its users is an important area to investigate, so that we can improve our understanding of these issues and begin to think about how we, as a united society can take steps towards achieving a more egalitarian and safer society for both men and women. We look forward to sharing our findings at the conclusion of this research.

References

Alichie, B. O. (2023) “You don’t talk like a woman”: the influence of gender identity in the constructions of online misogyny, Feminist Media Studies, 23:4, 1409-1428 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14680777.2022.2032253?scroll=top&needAccess=true [Accessed 31 January 2024]

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